Python wrappers for C++ with pybind11

We use the pybind11 library to generate Python wrappers for our C++ code. These wrappers are subject to the rules laid out in the DM Pybind11 Style Guide.

What follows is a basic step-by-step guide to writing pybind11 wrappers.

It attempts to cover the most frequently encountered patterns in LSST code. But it is not intended to be a full tutorial on pybind11. For far more detailed information please see the pybind11 documentation.

Wrapping step-by-step

To illustrate how wrapping is done we will recreate the example wrappers from the pybind11_example repository.

Wrapping a simple class

We start by wrapping the basic ExampleOne class in pybind11_example. Its header file looks like:

#ifndef LSST_TMPL_EXAMPLEONE_H
#define LSST_TMPL_EXAMPLEONE_H

#include <ostream>
#include <string>
#include <vector>

#include "ndarray.h"

namespace lsst {
namespace tmpl {

class ExampleOne {
public:
    enum State { RED = 0, ORANGE, GREEN };

    static constexpr int someImportantConstant = 10;  ///< Important constant

    /**
     * Default constructor: default construct an ExampleOne
     */
    explicit ExampleOne() : _state(RED), _value(someImportantConstant) {}

    /**
     * Construct an ExampleOne from a filename and a state
     *
     * @param[in] fileName  name of file;
     * @param[in] state  initial state (RED, ORANGE or GREEN, default RED).
     */
    explicit ExampleOne(std::string const& fileName, State state = RED);

    /**
     * Copy constructor
     *
     * @param[in] other  the other object
     * @param[in] deep  make a deep copy
     */
    ExampleOne(ExampleOne const& other, bool deep = true);

    /**
     * Get state
     *
     * @return current state (RED, ORANGE or GREEN, default RED).
     */
    State getState() const { return _state; }

    /**
     * Set state
     *
     * @param[in] state  state
     * @param[in] state  initial state (RED, ORANGE or GREEN, default RED).
     */
    void setState(State state) { _state = state; }

    /**
     * Compute something
     *
     * @param[in] myParam some parameter
     * @return a particular value
     */
    double computeSomething(int myParam) const;

    /**
     * Compute something else
     *
     * @param[in] myFirstParam some parameter
     * @param[in] mySecondParam some other parameter
     * @return a particular value
     */
    double computeSomethingElse(int myFirstParam, double mySecondParam) const;

    /**
     * Compute something else
     *
     * @param[in] myFirstParam some parameter
     * @param[in] anotherParam some other parameter
     * @return a particular value
     */
    double computeSomethingElse(int myFirstParam, std::string anotherParam = "foo") const;

    /**
     * Compute some vector
     *
     * @return a vector with results
     */
    std::vector<int> computeSomeVector() const;

    /**
     * Do something with an input array
     *
     * @return some result
     */
    void doSomethingWithArray(ndarray::Array<int, 2, 2> const& arrayArgument);

    /**
     * Initialize something with some value
     *
     * @param someValue some value to do something with
     */
    static void initializeSomething(std::string const& someValue);

    bool operator==(ExampleOne const& other) { return _value == other._value; }
    bool operator!=(ExampleOne const& other) { return _value != other._value; }

    ExampleOne& operator+=(ExampleOne const& other) {
        _value += other._value;
        return *this;
    }

    friend std::ostream& operator<<(std::ostream&, ExampleOne const&);

private:
    State _state;  ///< Current state
    int _value;    ///< Some value
};

ExampleOne operator+(ExampleOne lhs, ExampleOne const& rhs) {
    lhs += rhs;
    return lhs;
}

std::ostream& operator<<(std::ostream& out, ExampleOne const& rhs) {
    out << "Example(" << rhs._value << ")";
    return out;
}

}}  // namespace lsst::tmpl

#endif

Adding dependencies

First we need to add some dependencies to the build.

Scons will not use pybind11 unless it is setup, so in {{pkg}}/ups/{{pkg}}.table, where {{pkg}} is the name of the package, you will need to add the dependency setupRequired(pybind11). You also need to modify the dependencies in {{pkg}}/ups/{{pkg}}.cfg, by adding "pybind11" to "buildRequired".

Creating module files

Following our rules on file naming, we start by creating a minimal module file python/lsst/tmpl/_tmpl.cc with the following content:

#include "pybind11/pybind11.h"

#include "lsst/utils.python.h"

namespace lsst {
namespace tmpl {

void wrapExampleOne(utils::python::WrapperCollection & wrappers);

PYBIND11_MODULE(_tmpl, mod) {
    utils::python::WrapperCollection wrappers(mod, "lsst.tmpl");
    wrapExampleOne(wrappers);
    wrappers.finish();
}

}}  // lsst::tmpl

Warning

The name used for the PYBIND11_MODULE(..., mod) macro must match the name of the file, otherwise an ImportError will be raised.

WrapperCollection is a helper class provided by the LSST utils package that should be used in essentially all LSST pybind11 wrappers (the only exception being packages that have a good reason not to have a dependency on utils). It makes it easier to avoid dependency problems when wrapping multiple interrelated classes. It also makes wrapped classes appear as if they were defined directly in the higher-level Python package (lsst.tmpl here) rather than a hidden nested module like lsst.tmpl._tmpl, which should be considered an implementation detail. WrapperCollection instances should always be passed by non-const reference.

Modules should have exactly one source file with a PYBIND11_MODULE block, and usually that block should delegate the real work to functions defined in other source files (generally one for each C++ header to be wrapped).

Note

An older version of this tutorial advocated compiling each source file as a separate module, which makes it impossible to correctly handle circular dependencies, and generally leads to larger-than-necessary binary module sizes.

The source file that will actually contain the wrappers for ExampleOne.h will start out looking like this:

// _ExampleOne.cc

#include "pybind11/pybind11.h"

#include "lsst/utils/python.h"
#include "lsst/tmpl/ExampleOne.h"

namespace py = pybind11;
using namespace pybind11::literals;

namespace lsst { namespace tmpl {

void wrapExampleOne(utils::python::WrapperCollection & wrappers) {
    // ... wrappers for ExampleOne go here ...
}

}}  // lsst::tmpl

Because it’s only called in one place (the PYBIND11_MODULE block), we didn’t create a header for the declaration of wrapExampleOne. That means we need to make sure the names and signatures exactly match, because errors will only be caught by the linker (not the compiler), and linker error messages can be quite cryptic.

Tiny packages that provide just one header can be wrapped by putting all of the wrapper code directly in the PYBIND11_MODULE block, but before taking that approach it’s worth considering whether the package may gain additional headers in the future.

Wrapping the class

We wrap the class using the py::class_<T> template:

void wrapExampleOne(utils::python::WrapperCollection & wrappers) {
    wrappers.wrapType(
        py::class_<ExampleOne, std::shared_ptr<ExampleOne>>(wrappers.module, "ExampleOne"),
        [](auto & mod, auto & cls) {
            // method and other attribute wrappers go here
        }
    );
}

Note

As in the example, classes should almost always have a shared_ptr holder type.

WrapperCollection will automatically call the callback given as the second argument with the module and the pybind11::class_ object passed as the first argument, but not until all other classes defined in the module have been declared. That ensures all types are known to pybind11 before any signatures are declared, which in turn ensures pybind11 can generate the right type conversions when wrapping those signatures.

Usually the wrappers for a class can be defined entirely within the callback function, but wrapType also returns the class_ object in case it’s needed elsewhere. All of the examples in the next few sections that operate on a cls object can go inside the callback.

Wrapping constructors

Constructors are added to the class using the py::init<T...> helper:

cls.def(py::init<>());
cls.def(py::init<std::string const&, ExampleOne::State>());
cls.def(py::init<ExampleOne const&, bool>()); // Copy constructor

However, two of the constructors have default arguments. So we use the argument literal from pybind::literals to wrap them as keyword arguments (which following the rule on keyword arguments should almost always be done, except for non-overloaded functions taking a single argument):

cls.def(py::init<>());
cls.def(py::init<std::string const&, ExampleOne::State>(), "fileName"_a, "state"_a=ExampleOne::State::RED);
cls.def(py::init<ExampleOne const&, bool>(), "other"_a, "deep"_a=true); // Copy constructor

We also need to add: using namespace pybind11::literals; at the top.

Warning

Unfortunately there is no way for pybind11 to track the value of the default argument. So be careful to duplicate it correctly, and update it when it is changed in the C++ interface.

Getters and setters

We can wrap getState and setState as follows:

cls.def("getState", &ExampleOne::getState);
cls.def("setState", &ExampleOne::setState);

Following the rules on properties you may choose to add a property too:

cls.def_property("state", &ExampleOne::getState, &ExampleOne::setState);

Wrapping (overloaded) member functions

Wrapping a member function is easy:

cls.def("computeSomething", &ExampleOne::computeSomething);

However, when the function is overloaded we need to disambiguate the overloads. Following the rule on overload disambiguation we use overload_cast for for this:

cls.def("computeSomethingElse",
        py::overload_cast<int, double>(&ExampleOne::computeSomethingElse, py::const_),
        "myFirstParam"_a, "mySecondParam"_a);
cls.def("computeSomethingElse",
        py::overload_cast<int, std::string>(&ExampleOne::computeSomethingElse, py::const_),
        "myFirstParam"_a, "anotherParam"_a="foo");

Note that py::const_ is necessary for a const member function.

STL containers

The function ExampleOne::computeSomeVector returns a std::vector<int>. Following the rule on STL containers we simply include the pybind11/stl.h header (to enable automatic conversion to and from Python containers) and wrap the function as normal:

cls.def("computeSomeVector", &ExampleOne::computeSomeVector);

Note

The converters defined in pybind11/stl.h do a complete conversion from a C++ container to a Python container (e.g. std::vector to list). Unless the values of the container are smart pointers, that will involve a deep copy of the entire container.

Ndarray

The function ExampleOne::doSomethingWithArray takes an ndarray::Array argument. To enable automatic conversion to and from numpy.ndarray in Python add the following include (right below the pybind11 ones):

#include "ndarray/pybind11.h"

Then the function can be wrapped as normal:

cls.def("doSomethingWithArray", &ExampleOne::doSomethingWithArray);

Note

If your wrapper needs to convert Eigen objects, include pybind11/eigen.h. Previous versions of the ndarray library included automatic conversion for Eigen objects, but that code has been removed and we now rely on pybind11’s standard support for Eigen.

Note

Previous versions of the ndarray library also required numpy/arrayobject.h to be included, as well as a call to _import_array() in the module initialization function. As of ndarray 1.4.0, these steps are no longer necessary, but they will not yield incorrect behavior or errors (though they will generate warnings and slightly bloated code).

Static member functions

Wrapping static member functions is trivial:

cls.def_static("initializeSomething", &ExampleOne::initializeSomething);

Wrapping operators

According to our rule on operators we can either wrap operators directly, or use a lambda. Here we use both approaches:

cls.def("__eq__", &ExampleOne::operator==, py::is_operator());
cls.def("__ne__", &ExampleOne::operator!=, py::is_operator());
cls.def("__iadd__", &ExampleOne::operator+= /* no py::is_operator() here */);
cls.def("__add__", [](ExampleOne const & self, ExampleOne const & other) { return self + other; }, py::is_operator());

Note

• We use py::is_operator() to return NotImplemented on failure.
• We don’t use py::is_operator() for in-place operators as this can lead to confusing behavior.
• We name the lambda arguments self and other.

Module-Level Declaration

Module-level free functions and variables can be declared inside a wrapType callback, and you should do so when they’re closely related to the class it defines.

In other cases, you can add a callback not associated with any class by calling the wrap method instead:

wrappers.wrap(
    [](auto & mod) {
        // any number of module-level wrappers go here
    }
);

Note

We do not attempt to update the __module__ attribute of free functions, as these are rarely used. Free functions that are used by __reduce__ to reconstruct pickled objects should have their __module__ updated manually to avoid making serialized forms unnecessarily dependent on how our Python modules are structured.

Custom exceptions

The example contains a custom exception (ExampleError) added by the LSST_EXCEPTION_TYPE macro:

LSST_EXCEPTION_TYPE(ExampleError, lsst::pex::exceptions::RuntimeError, ExampleError)

To wrap it we can use the wrapException method:

wrappers.wrapException<ExampleError, pex::exceptions::RuntimeError>("ExampleError", "RuntimeError");

Note that this involves creating a subclass of RuntimeError, which is wrapped in the lsst.pex.exceptions module. We’ll need to import that module before calling wrapException. As we’ll discuss in more detail in Cross-module dependencies, this is best handled via a line like:

wrappers.addSignatureDependency("lsst.pex.exceptions");

Wrapping enums and nested types

wrapType should be used for enums as well as classes, as enums are also types and hence should be declared before any signatures are wrapped.

Because the enum in our example is defined in a class scope, we’ll need to capture the return value of the wrapType call for ExampleOne so we can use it to define the enum:

auto clsExampleOne = wrappers.wrapType(
    py::class_<ExampleOne, std::shared_ptr<ExampleOne>>(wrappers.module, "ExampleOne"),
    [](auto & mod, auto & cls) {
        // ... wrappers for ExampleOne ...
    }
);

wrappers.wrapType(
    py::enum_<ExampleOne::State>(clsExampleOne, "State"),
    [](auto & mod, auto & enm) {
        enm.value("RED", ExampleOne::State::RED);
        enm.value("ORANGE", ExampleOne::State::ORANGE);
        enm.value("GREEN", ExampleOne::State::GREEN);
    }
);

Note

We attach the enum values to the class (by passing the py::class_ object clsExampleOne as the first argument)

Note

Add .export_values() if (and only if) you need to export the values into the class scope (so they can be reached as ExampleOne.RED, in addition to ExampleOne.State.RED).

Never do this for C++11 scoped enum class types, since that will give them different symantics in C++ and Python.

Finished wrapper

The end result of all the steps above looks like this:

#include "pybind11/pybind11.h"
#include "pybind11/stl.h"
#include "ndarray/pybind11.h"

#include "lsst/utils/python.h"
#include "lsst/tmpl/ExampleOne.h"

namespace py = pybind11;
using namespace pybind11::literals;

namespace lsst { namespace tmpl {

void wrapExampleOne(utils::python::WrapperCollection & wrappers) {

    wrappers.addInheritanceDependency("lsst.pex.exceptions");

    wrappers.wrapException<ExampleError, pex::exceptions::RuntimeError>("ExampleError", "RuntimeError");

    auto clsExampleOne = wrappers.wrapType(
        py::class_<ExampleOne, std::shared_ptr<ExampleOne>>(wrappers.module, "ExampleOne"),
        [](auto & mod, auto & cls) {
            cls.def(py::init<>());
            cls.def(py::init<std::string const&, ExampleOne::State>(),
                    "fileName"_a, "state"_a=ExampleOne::State::RED);
            cls.def(py::init<ExampleOne const&, bool>(), "other"_a, "deep"_a=true); // Copy constructor
            cls.def("getState", &ExampleOne::getState);
            cls.def("setState", &ExampleOne::setState);
            cls.def_property("state", &ExampleOne::getState, &ExampleOne::setState);
            cls.def("computeSomething", &ExampleOne::computeSomething);
            cls.def("computeSomethingElse",
                    py::overload_cast<int, double>(&ExampleOne::computeSomethingElse, py::const_),
                    "myFirstParam"_a, "mySecondParam"_a);
            cls.def("computeSomethingElse",
                    py::overload_cast<int, std::string>(&ExampleOne::computeSomethingElse, py::const_),
                    "myFirstParam"_a, "anotherParam"_a="foo");
            cls.def("computeSomeVector", &ExampleOne::computeSomeVector);
            cls.def("doSomethingWithArray", &ExampleOne::doSomethingWithArray);
            cls.def_static("initializeSomething", &ExampleOne::initializeSomething);
            cls.def("__eq__", &ExampleOne::operator==, py::is_operator());
            cls.def("__ne__", &ExampleOne::operator!=, py::is_operator());
            cls.def("__iadd__", &ExampleOne::operator+=);
            cls.def("__add__",
                    [](ExampleOne const & self, ExampleOne const & other) {
                        return self + other;
                    },
                    py::is_operator());
        }
    );

    wrappers.wrapType(
        py::enum_<ExampleOne::State>(clsExampleOne, "State"),
        [](auto & mod, auto & enm) {
            enm.value("RED", ExampleOne::State::RED);
            enm.value("ORANGE", ExampleOne::State::ORANGE);
            enm.value("GREEN", ExampleOne::State::GREEN);
            enm.export_values();
        }
    );

}

}}  // namespace lsst::tmpl

Building the wrapper

The next step is to tell SCons to build your wrapper. Edit python/.../SConscript to look like this:

# -*- python -*-
from lsst.sconsUtils import scripts
scripts.BasicSConscript.python()

Importing the wrapper

The Python name for your wrapper module is exampleOne. If the wrapped classes can be returned by a function or unpickled then it is crucial that your module is imported when the package is imported. If the symbols are part of the public API then this is typically done by adding the following to your package’s main __init__.py file:

from ._tmpl import *

Note

One or more __init__.py files with imports like this must be used to make sure all wrapped types are actually available from the package used to construct the WrapperCollection.

Advanced Wrappers

In this section we are going to look at some more advanced wrapping. In particular inheritance and templates We shall also cover how to add pure Python members to wrapped C++ classes.

We wrap the following two header files from the templates package, ExampleTwo.h:

#ifndef LSST_TMPL_EXAMPLETWO_H
#define LSST_TMPL_EXAMPLETWO_H

namespace lsst { namespace tmpl {

class ExampleBase {
public:
    virtual int someMethod(int value) { return value + 1; }

    virtual double someOtherMethod() = 0;

    virtual ~ExampleBase() = default;
};

class ExampleTwo : public ExampleBase {
public:
    ExampleTwo() = default;

    double someOtherMethod() override {
        return 4.0;
    }
};

}}  // namespace lsst::tmpl

#endif

and ExampleThree.h:

#ifndef LSST_TMPL_EXAMPLETHREE_H
#define LSST_TMPL_EXAMPLETHREE_H

#include "lsst/tmpl/ExampleTwo.h"

namespace lsst { namespace tmpl {

template <typename T>
class ExampleThree : public ExampleBase {
public:
    ExampleThree(T value) : _value(value) { }

    double someOtherMethod() override {
        return static_cast<double>(_value);
    }
private:
    T _value;
};

}}  // namespace lsst::tmpl

#endif

More wrapper files

Because code in different headers should usually be wrapped in different source files, we’ll create two new skeletons for ExampleTwo.h and ExampleThree.h:

// _ExampleTwo.cc

#include "pybind11/pybind11.h"

#include "lsst/utils/python.h"
#include "lsst/tmpl/ExampleTwo.h"

namespace py = pybind11;
using namespace pybind11::literals;

namespace lsst { namespace tmpl {

void wrapExampleTwo(utils::python::WrapperCollection & wrappers) {
    // ... wrappers for ExampleTwo go here ...
}

}}  // lsst::tmpl

// _ExampleThree.cc

#include "pybind11/pybind11.h"

#include "lsst/utils/python.h"
#include "lsst/tmpl/ExampleThree.h"

namespace py = pybind11;
using namespace pybind11::literals;

namespace lsst { namespace tmpl {

void wrapExampleThree(utils::python::WrapperCollection & wrappers) {
    // ... wrappers for ExampleThree go here ...
}

}}  // lsst::tmpl

Our main source file should then be updated to declare and call all of the wrap* functions:

// _tmpl.cc

#include "pybind11/pybind11.h"

#include "lsst/utils/python.h"

namespace lsst { namespace tmpl {

void wrapExampleOne(utils::python::WrapperCollection & wrappers);
void wrapExampleTwo(utils::python::WrapperCollection & wrappers);
void wrapExampleThree(utils::python::WrapperCollection & wrappers);

PYBIND11_MODULE(_tmpl, mod) {
    utils::python::WrapperCollection wrappers(mod, "lsst.tmpl");
    wrapExampleOne(wrappers);
    wrapExampleTwo(wrappers);
    wrapExampleThree(wrappers);
    wrappers.finish();
}

}} // lsst::tmpl

Note

If any of this looks unfamiliar please see “Wrapping a simple class” first.

Inheritance

ExampleTwo.h defines two classes (ExampleBase and ExampleTwo) which we wrap as follows:

wrappers.wrapType(
    py::class_<ExampleBase, std::shared_ptr<ExampleBase>>(wrappers.module, "ExampleBase"),
    [](auto & mod, auto & cls) {
        cls.def("someMethod", &ExampleBase::someMethod);
    }
);

wrappers.wrapType(
    py::class_<ExampleTwo, std::shared_ptr<ExampleTwo>, ExampleBase>(wrappers.module, "ExampleTwo"),
    [](auto & mod, auto & cls) {
        cls.def(py::init<>());
        cls.def("someOtherMethod", &ExampleTwo::someOtherMethod);
    }
);

There are two subtleties:

• ExampleTwo inherits from ExampleBase.
• To indicate this we list ExampleBase as a template parameter when declaring clsExampleTwo.
• If ExampleTwo had additional base classes they would all be listed here.
• ExampleBase is abstract and therefore in pybind11 cannot have a constructor (even if it is present in C++).

Templates

Now we move on to ExampleThree. This is a class template. Following this rule we declare its wrapper in a function declareExampleThree (that is itself templated on the same type, although the latter is not required):

namespace {

template <typename T>
void declareExampleThree(utils::python::WrapperCollection & wrappers, std::string const & suffix) {
    using Class = ExampleThree<T>;
    using PyClass = py::class_<Class, std::shared_ptr<Class>, ExampleBase>;

    wrappers.wrapType(
        PyClass(wrappers.module, ("ExampleThree" + suffix).c_str()),
        [](auto & mod, auto & cls) {
            cls.def(py::init<T>());
            cls.def("someOtherMethod", &Class::someOtherMethod);
        }
    );
}

} // anonymous

void wrapExampleThree(utils::python::WrapperCollection & wrappers) {
    declareExampleThree<int>(wrappers, "I");
    declareExampleThree<double>(wrappers, "D");
}

Note

• We follow this rule and stick the declare function in an annonymous namespace;
• We use the alias rules for types and pybind11 class objects to minimize typing;
• A suffix is appended to the name of the class in Python. Commonly used suffixes are:
  • I for int,
  • L for uint64_t,
  • F for float,
  • D for double and
  • U for uint16_t.

(For historical reasons we have a mix of both traditional integer types and defined-size integer types.)

Cross-module dependencies

All of the dependencies in the example classes we’ve defined here are within the same compiled module, and hence we’ve been able to rely on WrapperCollection and its callback system to ensure the wrappers are defined in an order that works. The only exception is inheritance: ExampleTwo and ExampleThree both inherit from ExampleBase, and that means it’s critical that the wrapType call (or more precisely, the py::class_ instantiation) for ExampleBase appear before that of either of its derived classes.

When dependencies extend beyond module boundaries, we need to import the modules that provide the classes we’re using. While it’s possible to do that directly with py::module::import calls, it’s more readable and less error-prone to use the addInheritanceDependency and addSignatureDependency methods of WrapperCollection. As its name suggests, the former is needed when you want to inherit from a base class defined in another module; this must be called before the py::class_ instantiation of the derived class. addSignatureDependency declares that the external type is used only in function or method signatures. Regardless of when it is called, these dependencies will be imported after all local types are declared and before any definition callbacks are run.

Circular inheritance dependencies are impossible in both C++ and Python, but circular signature dependencies are relatively common within a single library in C++ (via forward declarations) and quite possible in Python (via function-level imports and duck-typing). In pybind11 wrappers, circular signature dependencies are more of a problem than they are in either language independently. Using WrapperCollection solves that problem within a single module (in which all wrappers are added to the same WrapperCollection instance). It also does its best to work around circular dependencies between different modules, but this relies on the details of how Python handles circular imports, making it very hard to guarantee correct behavior in all cases. Circular dependencies between modules should be avoided whenever possible.

Wrapping Submodules with their Parent Module

If the desired namespace for some symbols involves a subpackage nested below the level at which the WrapperCollection was defined, it’s usually best to just define an entirely independent module for that subpackage.

It’s also possible to create a submodule within the same compiled module, however, and this can be necessary when the classes in the subpackage have circular dependencies with those in the main package or other subpackages.

Note

Compiled submodules are complex and make the organization of a package’s code difficult to understand. Completely independent regular submodules should be used unless compiled submodules are necessary to deal with circular dependencies.

The module names and file/directory structure can be quite confusing in this case, so we’ll look at a very concrete example. Let’s imagine we have a package lsst.foo, with a normal package-level module _foo. That implies we have the following files:

lsst/
    foo/
        __init__.py
        _foo.cc
        SConscript

In order to add a submodule bar that wraps content from BarStuff.h, we’ll add a subpackage directory and __init__.py for it, and put a new source file in the subpackage directory, so the full structure now looks like this:

lsst/
    foo/
        __init__.py
        _foo.cc
        SConscript
        bar/
            __init__.py
            _BarStuff.cc

Note that we’ve named the new file after the header it wraps, because it’s going to be compiled into the _foo module. In fact, it won’t matter at all to the compiler where we put the source file; we’ve put it in the subpackage to signal to humans that that’s where its symbols will land.

We will have to tell SCons about that extra file:

# SConscript
from lsst.sconsUtils import scripts
scripts.BasicSConscript.python(extra=["bar/_BarStuff.cc"])

The new _BarStuff.cc looks just like it would if bar was an independent module; it defines a regular wrap function:

namespace lsst { namespace foo { namespace bar {

void wrapBarStuff(WrapperCollection & wrappers) {
    // ...
}

}}} // namespace lsst::foo::bar

When invoking that in _foo.cc, however, we create a submodule WrapperCollection and pass that in:

namespace lsst { namespace foo {

namespace bar {

void wrapBarStuff(WrapperCollection & wrappers);

} // namespace bar

PYBIND11_MODULE(_foo, mod) {
    WrapperCollection wrappers(mod, "lsst.foo");
    { // extra scope just keeps variables very local
        auto barWrappers = wrappers.makeSubmodule("bar");
        bar::wrapBarStuff(barWrappers);
        wrappers.collectSubmodule(std::move(barWrappers));
    }
    wrappers.finish();
}

}} // namespace lsst::foo

Note that we need to use std::move to indicate that we’re consuming barWrappers and are promising not to do anything else with it.

This submodule WrapperCollection doesn’t actually put symbols in lsst.foo._foo.bar, however. If it did, the from ._foo import * line would create an lsst.foo.bar submodule that would clash with the existing directory/subpackage one.

Instead, makeSubmodule creates a lsst.foo._foo._bar submodule, while setting the __module__ of its contents to lsst.foo.bar. That makes the lsst/foo/bar/__init__.py a bit tricky:

from .._foo._bar import *

While the higher-level lsst/foo/__init__.py stays simple:

from ._foo import *  # lifts _bar, too, but we don't care

from . import bar  # optional; imports the package if it's always wanted

Pure-Python Customization

Adding new members

Sometimes it is necessary to add pure Python members to a wrapped C++ class. Following our structure and naming convention for this, we’ll add a new pure-Python _ExampleTwo.py module. Note that this name doesn’t conflict with _ExampleTwo.cc, because that’s never compiled into a standalone Python module.

We’ll use the continueClass decorator to reopen the class and add a new method:

from lsst.utils import continueClass

from ._tmpl import ExampleTwo

__all__ = []  # import for side effects


@continueClass
class ExampleTwo:

    def someExtraFunction(self, x):
        return x + self.someOtherMethod()

Both the combined _tmpl module and any pure-Python customizations should be lifted into the package in its __init__.py:

from ._tmpl import *
from ._ExampleTwo import *

Warning

Python’s built-in super() function doesn’t work properly in a continueClass block.

Grouping templated types with an ABC

Using the TemplateMeta metaclass from lsst.utils we can group templated types together with a single abstract base class.

This gives users a familiar interface to work with templated types. It allows them to do isinstance(my_object, ExampleThree) and create an ExampleThreeF type using ExampleThree(dtype=np.float32).

As with ExampleTwo, add this to a pure-Python _ExampleThree.py:

import numpy as np

from lsst.utils import TemplateMeta

from ._tmpl import ExampleThreeI, ExampleThreeD

__all__ = [“ExampleThree”]

class ExampleThree(metaclass=TemplateMeta):

pass

ExampleThree.register(np.int32, ExampleThreeI) ExampleThree.register(np.float64, ExampleThreeD) ExampleThree.alias(“I”, ExampleThreeI) ExampleThree.alias(“D”, ExampleThreeD)